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REINOL and olive oil Introduction
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Olive oil is the best known and most commonly used vegetal lipid in thefood and diet industries due to its extraordinary nutritional and salutary
properties. It has also been successfully used in therapeutical and
dermatological applications Olive phytocomplexes are known for their
extraordinary eudermic properties (emollient, lenitive, sebum restructuring,
photo protective, anti radical etc.), but olive oil is not commonly used in
cosmetic preparations. In this industry, the interest for application of olive
products is more oriented towards derivatives of recent introduction to the
market such as the unsaponifiable part and other elaborations REINOL in collaboration
with PROGRESSUS produces
a series of olive oil derivatives for use in the production of quality cosmetic
products.
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The history of the olive
The origin of the olive tree is lost in the dawn of
time. Most definitely, the olive is one of the most antiquely cultivated fruit
trees of the old world and its importance for ancient Mediterranean
civilization is apparent in all the classic history books. The first signs of
olive cultivation and the production of oil extracted from its fruit can be
found in the 4th millennium B.C. The geographical area involved is that of the
coasts and islands of the eastern Mediterranean, even though it is believed
that the first varieties of cultivated trees were to be found in the
mountainous terrain south of Caucaso (today known as eastern Turkey and Lebanon and the surrounding area). The
olive is mentioned in Genesis (8,11): at the end of the deluge, the dove sent
from the ark returns with an olive twig in its beak for Noah (a sign of peace).
In antique civilizations, the olive was considered a
sacred tree, an object of worship. A garland of olive branches was given as a
prize to the winners at the Olympic games. The plant was sacred in Athens and could not be cut down or burnt; it is told that
during the ransacking of Athens, the Spartans didn’t touch the olives for fear of divine vengeance. Continuing
with the sacred scriptures, the olive represents justice (Psalm, 54,10), the
chosen people (Jeremiah, 11,16), and wisdom (Ecclesiastes, 24,19). For the
Hebrews, the olive was one of the precious gifts from God, and a symbol of
alliance. Again in the Sacred Bible (Exodus, 30,31), the sacred ointment (the
Lord’s Anointed) is described as being a composition of olive oil and perfumed
substances. The sacred oil, symbol of mercy, is today still used by the
Christian and Hebrew worlds in religious ceremonies of sacramental imposition
(baptism, confirmation, Extreme Unction).
It is like remembering the ground
that Jesus trod to triumphantly enter Jerusalem covered in olive branches, or the olive garden of Gethsemane where Jesus sadly retreated to prepare for his ordeal. The olive then spread
towards Greece and the island of Aegean. It is told that in the palace of
Crosso in Crete (Minoan civilization, III-II millennium B.C.), there was an
impressive storehouse of oil jars (pitchers) full of olive oil in far greater
quantities than needed to satisfy the residents of the island. This is probably
the proof that in Crete, not only was
oil produced but it was also widely traded.
In Egyptian archaeological findings there are traces
of treatment products and cosmetics, which have been discovered to contain
olive oil. A further expansion of the knowledge of olive oil towards the west
occurred at the beginning of the first millennium B.C. until it arrived in Tunisia, Sicily and Calabria towards the IV century B.C. Much later – in these times movements occurred much
more slowly – it arrived in Rome, via Etruria. Fenian
merchants, followed by Greek merchants, spread the species into other
Mediterranean areas, as far as Spain,
southern France and North Africa.
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The chemistry of olive oil
There are Greek and Roman historical findings regarding the knowledge of
the treatment properties of this oil. Galeno, a famous Greek doctor (130-200
D.C.) and Plinio il Vecchio, a famous latin historian and naturalist (originally
from Como:
23-79 D.C.) offered recipes based on olive oil.
In antique Greece and
Rome, olive oil
was used as a remedy for friction, massage and as a vehicle for many
medications.
The Imperator
Augusto used it to massage his muscles and to keep his body in optimum shape.
In the Arab world, and later also in the Mediterranean,
the leaves of the olive were discovered to have astringent, tonic and
febrifugal properties.
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Botanics
The olive (Olea europaea sativa) belongs to the Oleaceous family; it is
a plant that has a perennial evergreen foliage and grows very slowly to become
in some cases very large. It is a long living plant (some existing examples are
said to be hundreds of years old).
On an irregular shaped, contorted trunk with knotted branches grow long,
lanceolate leaves of a characteristic grey-green colour, darker on top and
pale, almost white, underneath. The fruit (olive) is a fleshy green drupe of
between about 10 and 35 mm in length, green in colour but turning darker with maturity at the beginning of
the winter season, becoming purple or even intense black.
Percentage composition (average) in fatty acids of typical Italian olive
oil
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C18:1
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Oleic
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65 - 80
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C16:0
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Palmitic
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5 - 12
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C18:2
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Linoleic
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4 - 7
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C18:0
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Stearic
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1,5 - 3,5
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C16:1
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Palmitoleic
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0,5 - 1
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C18:3
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Linolenic
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0,3 - 1
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C20:0
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Arachidic
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0,2 - 0,6
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C20:1
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Gadoleic
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0,1 - 0,5
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C22:0
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Behenic
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0,1 – 0,2
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C22:1
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Erucic
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0,1 - 0,2
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The oil is obtained from the mature fruit without grinding or successive
squeezing. A good healthy and correctly mature fruit can contain up to 50-60%
of oil, whose colour can vary from intense yellow to green; it has a pleasant
odour. It is liquid at temperatures in access of 0°C. The olive is a
Mediterranean plant, and as such suffers in extremely cold conditions,
especially in late springtime; it can survive cold temperatures, even as low as
–10/-12°C,
if they occur gradually and in full wintertime.
From a chemical point of view, olive oil is a lipid that mainly contains
triglycerides, oleic acid (monounsaturated) by majority and many other acids,
some saturates (palmitic, stearic, arachidic), and other monounsaturated
(palmitoleic, gadoleic, erucic), as well as a fraction of polyunsaturated
(linoleic and linolenic).
The small fraction of fatty acids present in the oil are in a free form
and are responsible for the typical acidity of the oil.
Notwithstanding the presence of a considerable fraction of unsaturated
(as can be seen in the table), olive oil has the benefit of resisting to
spontaneous oxidation better than other vegetal oils (such as soya, sunflower,
corn and peanut). It also resists well to thermal degradation, even when
exposed to very high temperatures, as in frying for example: the smoking point
for olive oil is much higher (210°C)
than with respect to that of the previously mentioned oils (from 130 to 180°C).
This behaviour could be linked to the presence of natural antioxidant
agents such as polyphenols in its composition. It appears that Italian olives
contain a greater quantity of these compared to those from other Mediterranean
regions. Polyphenols, with their antioxidant action, do not only lengthen the
life of the oil itself, but also act as real direct antioxidants upon the
organism.
This means that they are able to block the dangerous free radicals that
are formed in the organism through the peroxidation of the lipids. The
polyphenolic fraction of olive oil is formed of a mixture of not always well
identifiable (and therefore not entirely clear) substances: tirosol and hydroxytirosol,
europeina (about which we will talk in more detail), some phenolic acids (caffeic,
p-hydroxybenzoic and p-hydroxyphenilacetic).
Olive oil is also characterised by its unsaponifiable fraction, which is
prevalently formed of hydrocarbon amongst which the most interesting is squalene.
Amongst vegetal oils olive oil is the oil that contains the largest quantity
(up to 700 mg/100 g) of this precious hydrocarbon that can also be found in
human sebum and is therefore extremely functional in cosmetic products thanks
to its euderma eudermia. We should not forget sterols, a non glyceride
constituent present in this oil in a free form or as fatty acid esters.
Analytical definition has been able to determine that the main constituent of
this sterolic fraction is b-sitosterol, that
makes up from 70 to 90% of the total; the rest is constituted of d-5-avenasterol,
campesterol, stigmasterol, clerosterol and also cholesterol (the later in
minimal quantities, about 0,4% of the whole fraction).
In olive oil there is also traces of lecitin, of bitter principles (that
explain its typical taste) and, very importantly, various pigments. Amongst
these, we should mention carotenoid, (lutein, violaxantin, b-carotene),
chlorophyll and pheofitine. Such pigments are not only responsible for the
colour of the oil, but are also involved in the mechanism of its defence from
auto oxidation and photo oxidation.
In conclusion with regard to the composition of this lipid, we underline
that it also contains small fractions of phospholipids (immediately after
production, they degrade in time) and volatile substances (hydrocarbons,
aldeids, alcohols, various esters, enol derivatives).
It is evident that the composition of oils varies – sometimes
considerably – from type to type and according to the origin, the season of
harvest and the stage of maturity of the pressed fruit. Therefore, we shouldn’t
be surprised if, in literature, the tables that record the percentages of the
oils composition – especially those of secondary presence – show very different
results (sometimes even in great disaccord) from author to author. We should
also not be surprised about the mention of other numerous components not
mentioned in this paper, even if found – in tiny quantities – in this lipid. An
observation which we feel is worth discussing is that which explains the better
behaviour of olive oil when oxidative facts occur in respect to other types of
vegetal oils. The extraction and rectification processes that these oils go
through cause the disappearance or the degradation of certain active functional
components; on the contrary, virgin olive oil extracted exclusively with
physical (mechanical) methods maintains all its special characteristics and its
biochemical assets completely intact. It maintains a well balanced chemical
composition that makes it more resistant to the beginning of oxidation
processes caused by heat.
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Olive oil and medicine
As it is not precisely in line with the theme of this paper, we feel itis not necessary to discuss the interest of
this lipid in alimentary and dietetic fields, where it is considered an
indispensable element of the most fundamental importance. Instead, we will
briefly mention the use of this oil in the pharmaceutical field.
In internal applications it is used in the preparation of various medications intended to stimulate bile secretion
and intestinal peristalsis, as a laxative. It is also included in medicines for
the treatment of high blood cholesterol levels.
It would be too time consuming to
mention the many applications of olive oil in extemporary popular medicine: in
liniment for various uses, against dermatitis, itching and burns. Taken in
spoonfuls before meals to combat gastric ulcers, during meals to fatten and
beat sterility, in liver and kidney cholics, to eliminate gall stones, etc.
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Olive
oil and cosmetics
In the opening
notes of this paper we mentioned how olive oil, even if widely appreciated for
it is extraordinary nutritional qualities in alimentary and dietetic fields and
also widely used in the pharmaceutical industry for its known therapeutic
properties, does not enjoy the same “fame” and widespread use in the cosmetic
industry. Due to its chemical-physical and functional properties olive oil
would deserve to be preferred over other vegetal oils (local and exotic),
which, on the contrary, are appreciated and widely used in the industry.
Sure, there are
vegetal oils available on the market (above all from synthesis) that due to
their organoleptic properties (stickiness, odour, feel) are preferred over
olive oil as vehicles for functional ingredients in a cosmetic product. But as
far as quality is concerned (lubricant power, emollient power, carrier of
eudermic functional active ingredients), olive oil is definitely preferable
over the majority of the most commonly used ‘cosmetic oils’ today (we shall
call them as such for the sake of clarity). It is enough to think about its
content of fatty acids (including unsaturated) with their emollient,
restructuring and skin protection properties; or the functionality of its
unsaponifiable fraction: we mentioned that this is formed of squalene, alcohols
and fatty acids and sterols, which are very similar to the structure of the
sebum and therefore able to restore the fatty fraction of the skins
hydrolipidic film. Above all, we should not forget its richness in substances
with an antioxidant function (the polyphenolic derivatives mentioned
previously), whose action prevents the lipo oxidation of the cells thanks to
the capture of damaging free radicals.
It is true that
cosmetic lines containing this lipid are available on the market; old
formulations exist (still patiently prepared by old chemists) where olive oil
is used as the carrier for active ingredients (preparations containing
liposoluble vitamins for example).
REINOL in collaboration
with PROGRESSUS has studied and created some products that may be considered as the
“natural offspring” of olive oil. Using pure Italian olive oil as a base, a
series of cosmetic raw materials that maintain its qualitative and functional
properties are created. Thanks to their functionality and proved efficacy,
these products are becoming increasingly more popular with cosmetic formulators.
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